Terms: galaxies
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- Hubble Finds Most Distant Galaxies (CNN)
Includes a picture of galaxies believed to be 95 percent back to the time when the universe began, using an infrared camera.
- Glassifying Galaxies (University of California - Hastings and Hastings)
Provides two lessons to help students learn how to classify galaxies. 3-01
- Types of Galaxies (Discovery.com)
"Galaxies are enormous swarms of stars, dust, gas, and dark matter held together by gravity." The types (or shapes) are spiral, elliptical, and irregular. 3-02
- Virgo Cluster of Galaxies (Discovery.com)
Presents the nearest cluster of galaxies. "Our own cluster of galaxies, the Local Group, is part of a larger collection of over one hundred clusters called the Local Supercluster. At the center of this supercluster is the Virgo cluster. "The Virgo cluster is also the largest cluster of the supercluster, with over two thousand galaxies of different sizes and shapes."
"At about 50 million light-years away, the Virgo cluster is the closest cluster to the Milky Way. And its mass is so great, our Local Group is being pulled toward the Virgo cluster at about 168 miles per second." The speed of 168 miles per second is approximately 600,000 miles per hour. 3-02
- Unusual Galaxies (Discovery.com)
Describes the Siamese Twins, the Sombrero Galaxy, and the Polar Ring Galaxy. 3-02
- Black Holes Merge When Galaxies Collide (Scientific American)
Provides the theory, based on observations, that when galaxies collide, black holes at their centers merge. 7-02
- Stars and Galaxies - Newest Pictures (Galex)
Provides pictures of stars and galaxies using a new ultraviolet light telescope, as well as from other sources. "The Galaxy Evolution Explorer (GALEX), launched by a Pegasus rocket on April 28 2003, has been observing the sky using detectors sensitive to ultraviolet light. Click on the images below to see full size images, their interpretation and to download images in various formats." 12-03
- Galaxies Collide with a Stellar Bang (CNN News)
"Astronomers have found what they are calling the perfect cosmic storm, a galaxy cluster pile-up so powerful its energy output is second only to the Big Bang."
"The cluster collision is the most powerful ever recorded and a fresh glimpse of the cluster merging process, where great swarms of galaxies smash into one another to form a single galactic structure."
"Researchers said the Abell 754 observations match closely with those predicted by computer models and are a sign that astronomers are on the right track with theories of galactic evolution and the structure of the universe."
"NASA researcher Richard Mushotzky, U.S. project scientist for the XMM-Newton observatory, told reporters that the research also adds to the understanding of dark matter and dark energy, two invisible phenomena that can determine the rate of merging galactic clusters."
" 'In some ways, galaxy clusters are the universe in a box,' Mushotzky said. 'If we can understand them with some detail, we can apply those findings to the universe as a whole." 9-04
- Groups and Clusters of Galaxies (Wikipedia.org)
"Galaxy groups and clusters are super-structures in the spread of galaxies of the cosmos. Matter throughout the visible Universe has, over the course of the Universe's history, aggregated into a range of large-scale structures under the influence of gravity. Groups and clusters may contain from ten to thousands of galaxies. The clusters themselves are involved in larger groups called superclusters." 10-04
- Questions About Galaxies (ASK and Astronomer for Kids)
Provides questions and answers for kids and adults. 01-06
- Galaxies (Wikipedia.org)
"A galaxy is a massive, gravitationally bound system that consists of stars, an interstellar medium of gas and dust, and an unknown dark matter." 01-07
- Galaxies Topics (Wikipedia.org)
Provides a table of contents on galaxies. 01-07
- Pictures and Sounds of Galaxies (CosmicLog.msnbc.msn.com)
"Help yourself to the biggest pictures and the coolest sounds from space." 06-08
- Dazzling Views of Galaxies and Stars (ABC News)
Provides views from telescopes. 10-09
- -01-05-10 Hubble Photographs Early Galaxies at Birth (USA Today)
"Hubble astronomers unveiled a panoramic view Tuesday of the universe's youngest galaxies, offering the earliest look yet at the puny predecessors to our own Milky Way."
"Galaxies are the islands of stars filling the cosmos. Large ones such as our own Milky Way galaxy span more than 100,000 light-years (nearly 600,000 trillion miles) and contain hundreds of billions of stars."
"The few faint earliest galaxies that emerge from the survey of about 7,500 galaxies are much smaller and filled with young, massive stars. They shine from only 600 million to 800 million years after the Big Bang, which took place about 13.7 billion years ago." 01-10
- Stars and Nebulae - Printable Pictures (NASA - Spaceplace)
Provides printable color pictures of stars, galaxies, and nebulae. Includes the Butterfly, Carina, Eagle, Hourglass, Eskimo, Orion, Stingray, Trifid, and the NGC3132 nebula. (The files are rather large and will take a while to load on a 28.8k modem) 9-01
- Milky Way Galaxy (Discovery.com)
Provides a tour of major objects in our galaxy, as well as other nearby galaxies. 3-02
- Andromeda Galaxy (Discovery.com)
Provides a short description of our nearest spiral galaxy. 3-02
- Hubble Deep Field (Discovery.com)
Provides faint images from a tiny sliver of the universe by pointing the Hubble Telescope in the same place for 10 days. "By studying Hubble deep field, scientists hope to answer many questions about the number, evolution, and ultimate fate of galaxies in the universe." 3-02
- Motion of Matter at the Center of a Galaxy Filmed (Nature - Clarke)
Provides the first animation of the movement of matter at the center of a galaxy. 3-02
- Messier - List of 100 Objects Visible in the Night Sky (NCats.net)
"Charles Messier was a French astronomer who lived from 1730 to 1817. Charles compiled a list of over 100 deep-sky objects with the original purpose of providing a resource to identify objects that were often mistaken as comets. Today, the Messier catalog stands for a collection of almost all of the magnificent deep-sky nebula, galaxies, and star clusters that can be seen through a small amateur telescope." 7-02
- Earth from Far, Far Away and Very, Very Close (Florida State University - Davidson)
"View the Milky Way at 10 million light years from the Earth. Then move through space towards the Earth in successive orders of magnitude until you reach a tall oak tree just outside the buildings of the National High Magnetic Field Laboratory in Tallahassee, Florida. After that, begin to move from the actual size of a leaf into a microscopic world that reveals leaf cell walls, the cell nucleus, chromatin, DNA and finally, into the subatomic universe of electrons and protons." 9-02
- Evolution of the Universe (NASA)
"The myriad galaxies in the Hubble Deep Field represented the first big step for Hubble astronomers to understand galaxy evolution. But studying galaxy evolution in the Hubble Deep Field is like trying to understand the population of a country by sampling a small village. Astronomers don't know if the galaxies in that village are representative of the universe's galactic population. The GOODS survey, on the other hand, is akin to sampling the population of a large city to make inferences about galaxies in the cosmos." 6-03
- How Far Can We See at Night? (Space.com - Weinstock)
"On a clear dark night away from city lights, the star-spangled heavens can create an overwhelming sense of infinity. Seemingly countless points of light, so far away, urge one to contemplate the insignificance of a lone planet amid the incomprehensible breadth of the universe."
"Almost all of the sky objects visible to the naked eye are stars that reside in our galaxy. In fact the bulk of those you can see are relatively nearby, within a few thousand light-years. Most are actually within a few hundred light-years, with the exception of a few intrinsically brilliant stars that are many thousands of times more luminous than the Sun."
"For comparison, the Sun is about 26,000 light-years from the galactic center, orbiting on an outer spiral arm. The galaxy itself is about 100,000 light-years wide. We see most of its contents only with powerful telescopes working at various wavelengths of light not visible to humans." 12-03
- Projects About the Universe (School.Discovery.com)
Provides a project on galaxies and one on the "big bang" theory of the beginning of the universe. 1-04
- 03-29-04 Spirals in Mars Snow Caps Unraveled (CNN News)
"Odd spiraling gorges etched deep into the polar ice caps of Mars have stumped scientists for decades. The huge arcing troughs radiate outward like arms of a pinwheel, creating an overall shape that visually and mathematically resembles hurricanes, spiral galaxies and even some seashells."
"Now there is an apparent solution to the mystery, put forth by Jon Pelletier of the University of Arizona in Tucson."
"The tilted planet causes ice on one side of a crack to heat and vaporize, deepening and widening the crack. Then the water vapor hits the shady, colder side of the growing canyon and refreezes." 3-04
- Our Galaxy - Age of Galaxy Finally Estimated (BBC News)
"A team working with the Very Large Telescope (VLT) in Chile report that our galaxy is 13,600 million years old, give or take 800 million years. The observations were made by measuring the content of the element beryllium in two stars contained in a so-called globular cluster in our galaxy. The beryllium content of stars rises with time, so it can be used as a 'cosmic clock' to calculate their ages." 8-04
- Our Galaxy - From the Outside (BBC News)
"This [picture] is our home galaxy as it might look if you could travel outside it and look back." 8-04
- Our Galaxy Has a Black Hole in the Center (BBC News)
"There now seems little doubt that a supermassive black hole resides at the centre of our galaxy, the Milky Way." 8-04
- Superstring Theory (Wikipedia.org)
"Superstring theory is an attempt to explain all of the particles and fundamental forces of nature in one theory by modeling them as vibrations of tiny supersymmetric strings."
"At present, the deepest problem in theoretical physics is harmonizing the theory of general relativity, which describes gravitation and applies to large-scale structures (stars, planets, galaxies), with quantum mechanics which describes the other three fundamental forces acting on the microscopic scale." 10-04
- Dark Matter (Wikipedia.org)
"Dark matter is matter that can't be detected by its emitted radiation but whose presence can be inferred from gravitational effects on visible matter such as stars and galaxies." 10-04
- Quasars (Wikipedia.org)
"A quasar (from quasi-stellar radio source) is an astronomical object that looks like a star in optical telescopes (i.e. it is a point source), and has a very high redshift. The general consensus is that this high redshift is cosmological, the result of Hubble's law, which implies that quasars must be very distant and must emit more energy than dozens of normal galaxies." 10-04
- Hubble Sequence (Wikipedia.org)
"The Hubble sequence is a classification of galaxy types developed by Edwin Hubble in 1936. It is also called the tuning-fork diagram as a result of the shape of its graphical representation." 10-04
- Andromeda Galaxy (Wikipedia.org)
"The Andromeda Galaxy (also known as Messier Object 31, M31, or NGC 224) is a giant spiral galaxy in the Local Group, together with the Milky Way galaxy." 10-04
- Stars (Wikipedia.org)
"A star is any massive gaseous celestial body in outer space. Stars appear as shining points in the nighttime sky that twinkle because of the effect of the Earth's atmosphere and their distance from us. The Sun is an exception: it is the only star sufficiently close to Earth to appear as a disc and to provide daylight." 10-04
- -01-12-06 Best Images of 2006 (Space.com)
Provides Space.com's 20 nominees for best space images for 2006. 01-06
- Nebulae (Wikipedia.org)
"A nebula (Latin: "mist"; pl. nebulae) is an interstellar cloud of dust, gas and plasma. Originally nebula was a general name for any extended astronomical object, including galaxies beyond the Milky Way (some examples of the older usage survive; for example, the Andromeda Galaxy is sometimes referred to as the Andromeda Nebula)." Also spelled "nebulas." 01-06
- Types of Nebulae (NinePlanets.org)
"Originally, the word 'nebula' referred to almost any extended astronomical object (other than planets and comets). The etymological root of 'nebula' means 'cloud'. As is usual in astronomy, the old terminology survives in modern usage in sometimes confusing ways. We sometimes use the word 'nebula' to refer to galaxies, various types of star clusters and various kinds of interstellar dust/gas clouds. More strictly speaking, the word 'nebula' should be reserved for gas and dust clouds and not for groups of stars." Also spelled "nebulas." 01-06
- Big Bang Theory (Wikipedia.org)
"In physical cosmology, the Big Bang is the scientific theory that the universe emerged from an enormously dense and hot state about 13.7 billion years ago. The Big Bang theory is based on the observed Hubble's law redshift of distant galaxies that when taken together with the cosmological principle indicate that space is expanding according to the Friedmann-Lemaître model of general relativity. Extrapolated into the past, these observations show that the universe has expanded from a state in which all the matter and energy in the universe was at an immense temperature and density." 04-06
- Andromeda Galaxy Way Bigger Than Thought (CNN News)
"The discovery of several large, metal-poor stars located far from the center of the Andromeda galaxy suggests our nearest galactic neighbor might be up to five times larger than previously thought."
" 'We're typically used to thinking of Andromeda as this tiny speck of light, but the actual size of the halo...extends to a very large radius and it actually fills a substantial portion of the night sky,' said study team member Jason Kalirai of the University of California, Santa Cruz." 01-07
- Astronomical Distances (Wikipedia.org)
"The parsec (symbol pc) is a unit of length used in astronomy. It stands for 'parallax of one arc second'."
"One parsec is defined to be the distance from the Earth to a star that has a parallax of 1 arcsecond. It is, therefore, approximately:...3.261630751 light years."
"One kiloparsec, abbreviated 'kpc', is one thousand parsecs, or 3,262 light years. Kiloparsecs are typically used to measure distances between parts of a galaxy."
"One megaparsec, abbreviated 'Mpc', is one million parsecs, or 3,261,564 light years. Megaparsecs are typically used to measure distances between neighboring galaxies and galaxy clusters."
"One gigaparsec, abbreviation 'Gpc', is one billion parsecs — one of the largest distance measures used. One gigaparsec equals 3.261564 billion light years, or roughly ¼ the distance to the horizon of the observable universe (dictated by the cosmic background radiation). Gigaparsecs are typically used to measure distances to supergalactic structures, such as clusters of quasars or the Great Wall." 01-07
- M81 (Bode's) Galaxy (MSNBC News)
"This beautiful galaxy is tilted at an oblique angle on to our line of sight, giving a "birds-eye view" of the spiral structure. The galaxy is similar to our Milky Way, but our favorable view provides a better picture of the typical architecture of spiral galaxies. Though the galaxy is 11.6 million light-years away, NASA Hubble Space Telescope's view is so sharp that it can resolve individual stars, along with open star clusters, globular star clusters, and even glowing regions of fluorescent gas." 05-07
- The Big Rip (Space.com)
"A rather harrowing new theory about the death of the universe paints a picture of 'phantom energy' ripping apart galaxies, stars, planets and eventually every speck of matter in a fantastical end to time." 10-07
- The Big Rip (Wikipedia.org)
"The Big Rip is a cosmological hypothesis about the ultimate fate of the universe, in which the matter of the universe, from stars and galaxies to atoms and subatomic particles, are progressively torn apart by the expansion of the universe at a certain time in the future. Theoretically, the scale factor of the universe becomes infinite at a finite time in the future." 10-07
- The Big Rip (NewScientist.com)
"Stand by for a nightmare end to the Universe - a runaway expansion so violent that galaxies, planets and even atomic nuclei are literally ripped apart. The scenario could play out as soon as 22 billion years from now."
" 'Until now we thought the Universe would either re-collapse to a big crunch or expand forever to a state of infinite dilution,' says Robert Caldwell of Dartmouth College, New Hampshire. 'Now we've come up with a third possibility - the "big rip".' "
"Most physicists probably will not be rooting for phantom energy. That is because if it exists, it will cause them all kinds of theoretical headaches. For example, Einstein's theory of gravity predicts the existence of minuscule wormholes - short cuts through space-time."
"Normally they snap shut so fast we never notice them. But phantom energy's repulsive gravity would be powerful enough to hold wormholes open, and perhaps even push them wide enough apart for spacecraft to use them for faster-than-light travel. 'This raises the spectre of time machines and all their paradoxes, which physicists find very uncomfortable,' says Caldwell." 10-07
- Black Holes Galore (Time.com)
"Theory says that most of the galaxies formed shortly after the Big Bang should have giant black holes lurking in their cores--but until now, astronomers haven't seen much evidence." 10-07
- Close Encounter With a Cluster (CosmicLog.com)
"If galaxies are your thing, you simply have to zoom in on the Hubble Space Telescope's latest picture of the Coma Cluster, one of the densest collections of galaxies found to date." 06-08
- Hubble Survey Finds Missing Matter (HubbleSite.org)
"Although the universe contains billions of galaxies, only a small amount of its matter is locked up in these behemoths. Most of the universe's matter that was created during and just after the Big Bang must be found elsewhere."
"Now, in an extensive search of the local universe, astronomers say they have definitively found about half of the missing normal matter, called baryons, in the spaces between the galaxies. This important component of the universe is known as the 'intergalactic medium,' or IGM, and it extends essentially throughout all of space, from just outside our Milky Way galaxy to the most distant regions of space observed by astronomers."
"Astronomers caution that the missing baryonic matter is not to be confused with 'dark matter,' a mysterious and exotic form of matter that is only detected via its gravitational pull." 06-08
- Hubble Space Telescope Gets Final Upgrade (MSNBC News)
"When astronauts from the shuttle Atlantis open up the Hubble Space Telescope for its final extreme makeover, much of the work will be aimed at fixing what's been ailing the world's premier orbiting observatory. It'll get fresh batteries and brand-new gyros, and if all goes well, Hubble's Advanced Camera for Surveys and the Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph will be back in full working order for the first time in years."
"But this is not just a fix-up mission. Two new instruments are due to be swapped into the mix, and those enhancements should give Hubble superpowers it never had before: for example, three-in-one vision that spans the spectrum from ultraviolet to infrared, and the ability to make out the cosmic cobwebs that stretch out between galaxies." 05-09
- Hubble, Edwin (Wikipedia.org)
" He profoundly changed our understanding of the universe by demonstrating the existence of other galaxies besides the Milky Way. He also discovered that the degree of redshift observed in light coming from a galaxy increased in proportion to the distance of that galaxy from the Milky Way. This became known as Hubble's law, and would help establish that the universe is expanding." 06-09
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[Dr. Jerry Adams at jadams@awesomelibrary.org.]
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